2. vi. There are also cases of inter-tribal marriages. The youth are taught to be courageous in order to be able to face challenges in life e.g. This is done by breaking the hearts of relatives by refusing to be good-hearted when they need you. Communal worship prayers are offered to God to thank Him for whatever he has done. iv. The midwives perform the following:- 1. - They are many types of the wedding ceremonies. vi. White, C.M.N., Tradition and Change in Luvale Marriage, The Rhodes-Livingstone Papers, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1962, 1969. These constitute the core of the Bemba traditional African family around which the social organization of the traditional society revolves. Factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in African communities. The term 'brother' and 'sister' shows the sex of blood relations. Reconnecting with a genetic tie Genetic resource and testing connected a person to their blood. Everybody is a part of the other. MEDIUMS AND DIVINERS - Mediums are people through which ancestors and spirits communicate with the living. - A lot of bleeding can lead to the death of an individual. b) Outline the role of priests in Traditional African communities. 3. Professor of Sociology, Bridgewater College. Mitchell, J. iv. 4. .The eldest son cannot inherit.15, The Baganda practice the levirate custom. As such children at an early age learn that their father has little authority or responsibility for them. vi. These views were expressed before 1930s and as late as 1960s. Actual birth - During birth there are certain rituals that are performed to introduce the chills to the immediate and extended members of the family. The effective boundaries of the network vary for different people, over time and for different contents. The wishes of parents and the dead were honored. vii. If the child laughs, then the last mentioned name is given to him or her, .and the soul of the ancestors is considered to have entered its body.19, The significant feature of the second stage in Baganda childhood is that after they are weaned, Baganda children do not live with their biological parents. Large tracts of land 4 Large herds of cattle. One could also die due to breaking a taboo in such instances elders would identify the offender and perform an act of cleansing. Death must have a cause. 4. They include;- 1. First, two animal totems from one of which the clan derives its name. He was a Lecturer and Research Fellow at the Institute of African Studies of the University of Zambia from 1977 to 1990. 4. It gives the couple time to study the character of the partner and find out if he or she is the best. The degree of which witchcraft as a cause of death is emphasized varies from one community to another. 6. Midwife could assist the mother in actual delivery to ensure the safety of the baby. Land ownership: The ancestral land is communally owned and nobody is allowed to sell it. The author describes the interaction between the Baganda mother and her baby as unfavorable and lacking any affection or love. They are those who do not believe in traditional medicine. Polygyny though set the tone and often determined the strength of the society and pattern of social organization of the traditional African family. During seclusion there is sex education, which is meant for girls and boys for marriage. iv. The histories and cultures of Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia and North Africa are covered . At childhood children are taught to obey parents and the elderly. Most of the time they suffer from old age diseases. They affect all aspects of Africa, including care, marriages, and social status, since kinship controls people's relationships, moral values, and attitudes. - Gambling. iii. They were believed to have a lot of experience in life. Modern education and western culture has affected dowry payment in that many educated attach little value to dowry payment. 7. Some herbalists have been legalized by the government and have opened clinics e.g. Having so many people in this household should not be confused with other types of large families like, ..the joint family, with its several married brothers and their families living together or the extended family, consisting of a group of married off spring living in one household under a patriarch or matriarch.11 The Baganda are also patrilocal. These variations are caused by differences in tribal customs or culture according geography, history, religion, external influence of colonialism, inter migration, political and economic structures and influences. Clyde., The Yao Village: a Study in the Social Structure of a Malawian Tribe. Importance of Initiation i. A community has distinct beliefs, customs and cultural practices. It also gives them time to find out the background of the partners e.g. There were clear guidelines, rules and regulations on the use and ownership of land. Edited by G.A. It is the kinship ties which determine a person's rights, responsibilities and behaviour. The basic kinship unit of Bemba society is not the individual family, but a matrilocal extended family composed of a man and his wife, their married daughters, and the latters husbands and children.24, A young Bemba couple live in the same hut with a child of pre-weaning age whom they may have. Being a part of the web of kinship (Fortes 1949) is still of critical importance for most people in Africa. Circumcision is carried out at times in hospitals for health reasons. Those who did not have were assisted to acquire property by the community. 6. It symbolized death and resurrection. They may receive messages from the spirits and ancestors. In some communities the choice is made by the parents. The Baganda use classificatory system of kinship terminology which seems common to virtually all the Bantu peoples of Central and Southern Africa. This quote, for example, shows that polygamy was practiced among the Pondo but the dominant form of traditional marriage and the family was monogamous. theories regarding family structure" (D . Other significant strengths are that the traditional African family increased group cohesion in an otherwise harsh physical and social environment. 2. - Wife inheritance has become risky due to HIV/AIDS. Western Culture: Has provided the spirit of individualization. in some communities it is thrown to uncultivated land to show fertility. Politics: New political systems and forms of government have changed the traditional community. People who are directly related to each other are known as primary kin. Importance of kinship ties to TAS Establishing that traditional Kenyan culture and custom was supportive of high fertility in no way establishes how strongly held are these practices today or how quickly they may change as the socioeconomic basis of the real day-to-day society changes. Christianity: Christianity has weakened African Kinship ties by introducing new ties by the Christian family. It could also show how the bridegroom is capable of taking care of the bride. These are many. The study of African societies has become an established area of scholarship, with sophisticated analyses that are far from earlier works . Death always strikes unexpectedly. The birth of a child is no longer a communal affair but a family affair. However, both the organization of the family unit, marriage, decent systems and the structure of kinship relations vary from society to society and through time (Ingiabuna et al. - The bathing symbolizes the beginning of a new state in life. Agikuyu umbilical cord is kept to symbolize the link between the mother and the child. Naming ceremonies also bring unity among the people whenever a new child is born, members of extended family would come to celebrate together. They give information concerning cause, nature and treatment of diseases. Those who abuse sex are heavily punished. Dressing The dress code differed from one community to another in the traditional African setup. bribery, robbery and stealing. The elderly are physically in active. The continuance of Aboriginal society is dependent on keeping Aboriginal families strong and healthy both physically and culturally. FACTORS AFFECTING THE SYSTEM 173 THE SIB: DESCENT AND EXOGAMY Kinship ties necessarily begin within the family as a pro- creational unit. She organizes the disposal of the placenta (after birth). 3. Urbanization has undermined the role of of the elders as it becomes difficult for elders to operate as the people come from different backgrounds. They also perform light duties for relatives. - In some communities such a girl would be stabbed by an arrow and killed while in others she would be married to an old man. - Some widows and children are not accepted or welcomed in their new homes. Other names may also refer to the characteristics of the mothers pregnancy or the nature of delivery e.g. - With the introduction of money economy it is possible to sell land. They are free most of them and can get time for the younger generation. It is a source of food for the people and the animals. This chapter only focussed on the matrilineal and polygynous patrilineal African traditional family patterns because they seem representative of the broad patterns that exists on the continent. Grandmothers teach girls their roles and grandfathers maintain law and order .Young unmarried men provide security in form of warriors while boys look after the animals. Among the Chewa of Eastern Zambia, the custom of man living with his wifes parents temporarily or permanently was known as Ukamwini.23. v. They are also consulted in terms of crisis e.g. c) Explain the factors weakening kinship ties among Africa communities. This explains why the family household included servants, female slaves, and their children. Scholars of the African traditional family agree that the one widely known aspect that distinguishes the African traditional family, say from the European one, is the perversity of polygamy3. 9 J.A. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956, 1966, 1971). - The wife or orphans sometimes get mistreated. Main factors which affect social change can be discussed a follows: 1. But typically news, information, and gossip flow readily through the network, with some individuals acting as "kin . 3. - The placenta is disposed of ceremoniously e.g. IV, pp.66-87. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1971. Each community has a distinct political and social organization. Others bury the dead with property with a belief that they would continue to use them in the next world. The book describes and explains Chewa traditions and customs including Ukamwini. (Ndola: Mission Press, 1988), 44 Thomas Price, A Short English-Nyanja Vocaublary, (Lusaka: National Educational Company of Zambia, and Kenneth Kaunda Foundation, 1970). Some people believe casting of an evil eye would cause bodily harm to somebody. The verb kulobola is very specific meaning the valuables that are given partially or in full to the girls people to legitimate or seal the marriage. Virginity is not highly valued and many people break their virginity at stage of adolescence. 5. - In some communities it would last for several days. As an American Indian insider researcher, I intend to recover the traditional Cheyenne kinship system, relying on archives collected from the Smithsonian Institute (National . People nowadays migrate and buy lands in far places. society. These three types of kinship are: Consanguineal: This kinship is based on bloodor birth: the relationship between parents and children as well as siblings, says the Sociology Group. - They are kept company. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956, 1966, 1971. 5. It was written in 1988. They are important because they have a lot of experience. ii. iii. Family. Researchers have examined the effects of matrilineal kinship systems for women's preferences, including preference for competition, altruism, risk, and political participation. Naming gives identity to a person before a child is given a name she or he is not considered as having full identity. v. There was a lot of fairness in the distribution of property. It cements the relationship between the two families through the exchange of gifts. Ch. One-parent families headed by a woman for any reason are much poorer ($30,296 in 2008 median annual income) than those headed by a man ($44,358). 7. - Wealth is no longer determined in terms of the number of wives or children. The basic family unit among the Bemba was not the nuclear family. There is a lot of secrecy surrounding the knowledge of herbs. 1. ii. T/F: Through slavery, forced separation of spouses, siblings, and parents from children led to a more expansive definition of kinship, and thus an extended family model took root. Young men are taught to be honest in all their undertakings. This paper aims at tackling the change in the anthropological view of marriage and kinship ties in the society. 3. 5) Modern science and technology also discourage people from believing mysterical powers. Some names are given according to the time one was born. Kinship is reckoned through blood and betrothal (engagement and marriage). 7. - The girls would take back the sheet with a lot of ululation and rejoicing and one girl would remain behind to study the character of the man. LAND In the traditional African society, people had a lot of attachment to land. Prayers also connect the living and the dead. A good son-in-law hoes the garden, chops trees, and generally help his wifes family as proof of his love for his wife, dedication, and being a well cultured individual. - They would stay overnight and the following day they would go to bathe in the river with cold water. Marriage ceremonies brought people together as they came together to rejoice. Natural Factors: ADVERTISEMENTS: Natural forces and factors play an important role in unifying or disintegrating the society. ii. - Some pieces of land are being regarded as public land. Mair, Lucy P., African Marriage and Social Change, in Survey of African Marriage and Family Life. The father knows that his children are not his ultimate responsibility but his sisters children. Lusaka: National Educational Company of Zambia, and Kenneth Kaunda Foundation, 1970. For example, among the Tumbuka38 of Eastern Zambia the verb kugula (to buy) is used to refer to purchasing of material objects or commodities and domestic animals. INITIATION - This is the second major important stage in ones life. Diviners also have religious functions and perform duties of priests such as offering of sacrifice. Thesis. Where as chiefs have a number of wives, it is very rare to find ordinary men who have more than one wife. Department of Sociology For example, when a man dies among the Baganda, his power over the property ends. Meanwhile, the husband works under his father-in-laws orders with other young son-in-laws.26 A matrilocal family of this kind forms the nucleus of a village community (umushi) which other relatives of the head of the family afterwards join.27, Polygamy or polygyny, which is a distinguishing feature in many traditional African families especially is patrilineal and patriarchal societies, is uncommon among the matrilineal Bemba. A person's position in the kinship system establishes their relationship to others and to the universe, prescribing their responsibilities towards other people, the land and natural resources. 4. Girls take care of the babies and fetch firewood. vii. The Family; Its Structures and Functions. - Children born out of marriage inherit their parents property. Spirit of sharing: In African Traditional Community there is the spirit of sharing of resources among the members of a community e.g. - Life also continues after death, death does not mark the end of life but is just a change of state. 8. For example, all weapons and iron implements are removed from the house of an expectant mother. This difficulty in generalization bone of diversity was already apparent to many early scholars of the African traditional family like Mair(1) and Goode(2). Girls at an early age are taught a wide range of household and agricultural duties including cooking, cultivation and tending children. New York: The Free Press, 1963. Africa's traditional religion is based on the Ubuntu philosophy, which is a Zulu word for human-ness, and was developed over many centuries in traditional African culture. There are three main types of kinship: lineal, collateral, and affinal. Phone: (540) 828-5351 3. Yet others could also die due to old age. Circumcision of the girls is a practice that has been widely condemned for health reasons. Importance of Kinship System and Ties. The size of the clan could differ from one to the other. Other names can refer to place of birth e.g. largest kinship network of any descent system ever invented. 3. Both the mother and the child are given charms to protect them. 8. 7. The anthropology of the Caribbean has been called "the battle ground for competing. Colson, Elizabeth., Marriage and the Family among the Plateau Tonga of Northern Rhodesia., Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1958. The children learn the customs, beliefs, and culture pertaining to the social roles of being a woman, mother, and wife for girls; and a man, father, and husband for boys. A father-in-law knows what to expect from a good son-in-law. - Can interfere with an individuals reproductive system. 8. The mid wife checks any abnormalities on the babies at the correct time. vi. Boys and girls are not allowed to mix freely unless under supervision. Urbanization: Where people of different cultures interact with one another. Life is seen to begin from the time of conception since unborn children are taken as part of the community. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that the study of kinship is the study of what humans do with these basic facts of life - mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. This helps to control peoples behaviors. In traditional African society this entails a bride-exchange in form of cattle, services, foodstuffs, family ties, or other expressions of the marriage contract. DeVos, New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1976. DEATH RITES When a person dies, members of the family gather at the home of the deceased and leave their everyday commitments for a while. For example, in the polygynous African family, like among the Baganda, and many others, your fathers wives and brothers were not just mothers and fathers just as mere kinship terms. - Kinship helps to prevent the spread of hereditary diseases. Coser, Rose Lamb., (Ed.) Dishonoring or insulting God. - It also regulates marriage relations, before marriage one has to find the back ground of the other. 5. - Patriotism. 48 R. A. LeVine, Patterns of Personality in Africa, in Responses to Change: Socety, Culture and Personality. The major reason cited is that with increasing modern influences, marrying more than one wife became an economic burden. 6 It separates one from the loved ones. They are consulted in cases where western medicine has failed. Due to de-forestation, some herbs are becoming extinct. Permissiveness in the society has eroded . iv. This is meant to send it clean into the world of the living dead. 7. The man who is the heir to the widow has the additional family responsibility of adopting the widows family. 2. 8. 6. By combining the patrilocal rule of residence with consanguinal descent, the Baganda have built a formidable system of clans.13, Among the Baganda, the clan has remained the most important kinship entity. Some of the issues that were the products of the Eurocentrically biased judgements include the following two. iv. Through dreams and vision v. Through observation and practice MEDICINE MEN They have the knowledge of healing certain diseases in the community. - People write wills to share or decide who should inherit their property. - Kinship system provides the peaceful ways of settling disputes in a community as all are treated as brothers and sisters. There are several forms of Initiation; these include:- i. Circumcision ii. It is believed that after death one continues to live in the spirit world and therefore the dead relatives are to be given descent burial so that they cannot harm the living. Rules and Regulations: People in the community are governed by rules and regulations, which are strictly followed. - They can foretell the future by receiving visions, dreams or words from God. They are taught about morals of the society. A total of 68 linguistic terms of relationships are used by the Baganda.12, The Baganda have a very important aspect of the social or family structure; the consanguinal kin group or blood line which is a line of descent traced through the male members of the family or patri-sib. Some of the major issues raised will include polygamy, tribe, clan, the extended family, bride price and the raising of children. They have the ability to foretell what would happen in the future. People who have gone to school see the aged as old fashioned (generation gap) 6. a diviner would be called when something was stolen. Severing the ties of kinship is among the body sins and it is among the major sins. These relationships which are described in this way are rituals of respect between a son-in-law and his mother-in-law, a daughter-in-law and her father-in-law. 2. In difficult times such as during famine, those who have share what they have with their relatives. (2) Generation: Kinship tie is established between the persons in relation to generation. They include: i. - They suffer from psychological and emotional problems - Sometimes widows face lack of essentials such as food. 2. Rethinking the Family: Some Feminist Questions, New York: Longman, 1982. 3. 2) Some students also consult them to succeed in exams and career. The celebration that marked the end of initiation is slowly dying out due to economic constraints. This can begin as early as childhood or before the children are born. - Marriage brought unity in the society. To give the mother time to recover the lost energy. Polygyny was widely practiced in Africa and it often formed the backbone of the traditional African family patterns. Hotel Hope Ministries is a fully registered South African non-profit organisation established with aim of ensuring that each and every child is brought up in a safe, happy and healthy home so that they can grow up and develop into responsible and positive adults. Because of this, extended families among the Bemba are not really as large as those found, especially among patriarchal polygynous traditional families in other tribes be it in Southern, Eastern, or West Africa.28 Polygamy is relatively speaking uncommon in this area and the institution is not an essential part of the Bemba family and economic life as it is among so many Bantu peoples.29, The Bembas kinship is based on descent in the matrilineal line. First, two animal totems from one of which the clan derives its name. To protect the child from evil eyes. 2. There was fair distribution of wealth to even those who did not have. Boys will live with the brothers of their father and until marriage, girls live in the home of a married elder brother or with the brother of the father. Prophets or priests also have political role e.g. Divorce and separation are discouraged. Which factors have led to the weakening of kinship ties in Kenya today? There is no bride price in our society. Introduction. Asante, Molefi Kete., Afrocentricity; The Theory of Social Change, Buffalo: Amulefi Publishing Company, 1980. It must be emphasized, however, that these were traditional patterns as far back as late 1800s up to as late as 1960s. All rights reserved. Some of them are (i) Rites of passage (2) Good morals (3) Participation in communal activities such as ceremonies, work, leisure activities and worship (4) Sharing of property and ideas (5) Division of labour. 2. As the African society has not been static, changes in the traditional family patterns will be briefly alluded to. Barnes, J.A., Marriage in a Changing Society: a Study in Structural Change among the Fort Jameson Ngoni, The Rhodes-Livingstone Papers, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1951, 1970. - Marriage raised the status of the couples once somebody was married he was given a lot of respect. ii. 3. iv. Pregnant women are not allowed to handle certain types of tools. LEISURE Leisure is the free time that an individual has at his disposal when he is not bound by duty. The government, the church and non-governmental organizations have built homes for the aged. Elders iv. The clan assumes control of inheritance; the wishes of the dead person may or may not be honored. Characteristics of African community 1. What role did religion play in medieval Africa communities? They do not have good food or accommodation. Once somebody is married he got fully integrated to the society. Children are expected to help in minor household tasks. ix. The midwife advises on post-natal care of the mother and the baby. Famous Sociologist H.M. Johnson identified six important bases of kinship which are described below: (1) Sex: Kinship relation is differentiated in each society on the basis of sex. Lous Wirth also believed that the city is not conducive to the traditional type of family life. Sometimes people mistake that they are witch doctors especially Christians. People in the traditional African communities were afraid of acquiring property unlawfully for fear of curse. 1. But it makes it difficult to keep track of our kin. - Marriage enables one to assume leadership rules an unmarried person would not be chosen a leader. Kinship is a social relationship based on real consanguinity. 7. The community disciplined those who showed traits of greed over ownership of property. A clan is made up of a family who either are related by blood and marriage. People that belong to the same kinship system are referred to as kin. Before initiation one is not fully considered belonging to the community. A Bemba belongs to his mothers clan (umukoa), a group of relatives more or less distantly connected, who reckon descent from real or fictitious common ancestries, use a common totem name, and a series of praise titles, recite a common legend of origin and accept certain joint obligations.30. The attitude of the parents towards the sex of the child is also changing. These could be through words or deeds. The contention that questions the existence of African traditional society and culture has been clearly beyond reasonable doubt asserted to agreement however there are presences of constraints towards the flourishing of these societies as, Internal factors which include; Lack of unity among members of the society, differentiation of ideologies . What was the structure of the polygynous family? viii. Death -The rites or ceremonies conducted on such occasions differ from one community to another. a child born after a long period of childless marriage is called Ogwedhi among the Luo. Goode, William J. Changing Family Patterns: Sub-Saharan Africa, in World Revolution and Family Patterns. The Plan of Action also asserts that "for the full and harmonious development of their personality, children should grow up in a famil environmenty in a,n atmosphere of happiness lov, ane d understanding". 1. It is a sign of belonging to the society or identification. Box 169 The youth are ritually introduced to the communal living. There is wailing in the house to show how the fellow was dear to them. Role of priests, prophets and seers 1. N.S.S.F. ii. But rather as curiosities that were to succumb to the superior European monogamous marriage values legitimated by Christianity. Many people today acquire Christian names. 2. Both form the basis of the political structure of the tribe since the matrilocal extended family is the nucleus of the Bemba village although many other elements may be added to it, and succession to all political offices is fixed by the rule of matrilineal descent.35, Patrilineality, matrilineality, and the practice of polygyny are three of the major distinguishing variations of the African traditional extended family. - The practices vary from one community to another. 2 William J. 10. It is a token of appreciation in the part of the bridegrooms people to those of the bride for the care over her. 7 Stuart Queen, Robert W. Habenstein, and John B. Adams, The Polygynous Baganda Family, in The Family in Various Cultures, (New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1961) Ch. BIRTH Pregnancy - This is the first stage in the life of a person. iii. Thorne, Barrie., and Yalom, Marilyn., (Eds.) it governs behavior towards each other - Kinship binds together the entire life of a community, the departed and those yet to be born. Follow. They are referred to as the Eskimo, Hawaiian, Sudanese, Omaha, Crow, and Iroquois systems. They also do the work of advisors e.g. For example, in debt and marriage obligations. As Eaton et al (2003) found in South Africa, for young people struggling for daily survival, protection from possible future illness may be a lower priority than meeting immediate economic needs. They could also clean newly born baby. The following day, the naming ceremony takes place. Still, traditional families such as those in Family Ties and The Cosby Show dominated the ratings. 7. 7 Nobody knows what happens after life on earth here. iv. WIDOWS AND ORPHANS - A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. They advise the expectant mother on how to take care of herself. Marriage is no longer a must and many people decide not to marry. vi. 2 Traditional foster care arrangements are referred to as non-kin foster care. 3. They believe iron implements attract lightning. Current notions of kinship still owe a great deal to ideas about the physiological connections between kin.

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